Lesson 1 - The English alphabet
1.2. Consonant letters
These are the consonant letters: b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z.
1.3. Vowel letters
These are vowel letters: a, e,* i, o, u.
1.4. Consonant-and-vowel letters
W and y are consonant letters when they come before a vowel letter: want, yet, backward. But they are vowel letters when they come after another vowel letter*: cow, day, law, boy. Also, y is a vowel when it follows a consonant letter: cry, silly, really.
2. Consonant and vowel sounds
2.1. The table of consonant sounds of English
In the previous section we learned about the alphabet, how to pronounce each letter, and how the letters are divided into consonants and vowels. In this section, we’ll explore the sounds they make in the table below.
The table of consonant sounds of English:
| /p/ as in part | /f/ as in food | /h/ as in has |
| /b/ as in bed | /v/ as in voice | /m/ as in man |
| /t/ as in too | /θ/ as in thing | /n/ as in not |
| /d/ as in did | /ð/ as in this | /ŋ/ as in long |
| /k/ as in kiss | /s/ as in see | /l/ as in let |
| /g/ as in get | /z/ as in zoo | /r/ as in red |
| /tʃ/ as in chin | /ʃ/ as in she | /j/ as in yes |
| /dʒ/ as in joke | /ʒ/ as in measure | /w/ as in will |
2.2. The table of vowel sounds of English
| Monophthongs | Diphthongs | |
|---|---|---|
| long vowels | short vowels | |
| /iː/ as in each | /ɪ/ as in it | /eɪ/ as in day |
| /ɑː(r)/ as in car | /e/ as in then | /aɪ/ as in by |
| /ɔː(r)/ as in more | /æ/ as in back | /ɔɪ/ as in boy |
| /uː/ as in too | /ʌ/ as in much | /əʊ/ as in no |
| /ɜː(r)/ as in word | /ɒ - ɑ/ as in not* | /aʊ/ as in now |
| /ʊ/ as in put | /ɪə(r)/ as in near | |
| /ə/ as in again | /eə(r)/ as in there | |
| /i/ as in happy | /ʊə(r)/ as in truer | |
* The “short o sound” in not is unrounded in U.S., and its phonetic symbol is /ɑ/: /nɑt/. Note that some words pronounced with /ɒ/ in G.B. are pronounced with the different vowel /ɔ/ in U.S. For Example, gone /gɒn||gɔn/.
The word “unrounded” in the context of the short ‘o’ sound in U.S. English (phonetic symbol /ɑ/) refers to the shape of the lips when the sound is produced.
Here’s a breakdown:
- Unrounded Vowel: When you pronounce an unrounded vowel like the /ɑ/ in “not,” your lips are relatively spread or neutral and are not pushed forward to form a circular shape.
- Rounded Vowel: In contrast, a rounded vowel, like the /oʊ/ in “boat” or the /uː/ in “boot,” involves the lips being pushed forward and puckered into a noticeable circle.
In the example provided, the U.S. English sound /ɑ/ in “not” /nɑt/ is described as unrounded, which differentiates it from the typical British English /ɒ/ sound which is often described as slightly rounded. When an American says /nɑt/, the jaw drops and the mouth opens wide, but the lips themselves don’t form a round shape.
Notes:
(1) The symbol ((r)) indicates that the vowel is pronounced with an “r” sound:
– (i) in U.S. when it is followed by the letter “r”, and
– (ii) in standard G.B. when it is followed by the letter “r” and immediately followed by another vowel.
Ex: car /kɑː/ (G.B.); /kɑːr/ (U.S.)
But: Take the car out /’kɑːr aʊt/ (both G.B. and U.S.)
(2) The two consonants /l/ and /n/ are sometimes pronounced as separate syllable, that is, as if they are vowels. For example, bottle, wooden, didn’t.
(3) The letter x normally stands for the two consonant sounds /ks/, for example, six /sɪks/. But at the beginning of a word, it is pronounced with /z/: xerox /ˈzɪə.rɒks || -ɑks/.
(4) The letter –e is normally silent when it comes at the end of a word, after a consonant letter, for example, make /meɪk/, house /haʊs/.
Note: The schwa sound
Definition 1:
The schwa sound exists in English to maintain the rhythm of spoken language by reducing unstressed vowels to a short, neutral “uh” sound. This “lazy” sound is effortless, allowing speakers to say words more quickly and focus emphasis on stressed syllables. The schwa helps make speech sound natural, is the most common vowel sound in English, and can be represented by any vowel letter (a, e, i, o, u, y) when it is in an unstressed position.
This video explains what the schwa sound is and why it’s important:
https://www.youtube.com/shorts/IrNSnAiHmDQ
Definition 2:
Why the schwa sound is used
- To maintain rhythm: English has a stress-based rhythm. The schwa allows unstressed syllables to be shortened to fit the rhythm of the stressed syllables.
- For efficiency: The schwa sound requires very little effort, helping people speak faster and convey more information in less time.
- To sound natural: Using the schwa in unstressed syllables, especially in function words* like “a” or “the” (e.g., “a man”), creates a more natural and fluent-sounding speech.
- To accommodate all vowels: Any vowel letter can become a schwa when it is in an unstressed position, which is why spelling and pronunciation don’t always match. For example, the ‘a’ in “again,” the ‘e’ in “development, ” the ‘o’ in “lemon,” the ‘i’ in “’family or ‘cousin,” and the ‘u’ in “sup’ply,” the ‘y’ in “syringe” can all make this sound.
* a word whose purpose is to contribute to the syntax rather than the meaning of a sentence, for example do in we do not live here.
More references:
https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/schwa.htm
Triphthongs
Source: ChatGPT
Here are 5 words that contain triphthongs, along with their phonetic transcriptions (IPA symbols). A triphthong is a complex vowel sound that involves a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all within the same syllable.
- IPA: /ˈfaɪə/ or /ˈfaɪəɹ/ (in non-rhotic vs rhotic accents)
- Triphthong: /aɪə/
- IPA: /ˈaʊə/ or /ˈaʊəɹ/
- Triphthong: /aʊə/
- IPA: /ˈpleɪə/ or /ˈpleɪəɹ/
- Triphthong: /eɪə/
- IPA: /ˈlaɪə/
- Triphthong: /aɪə/
- IPA: /ˈrɔɪəl/
- Triphthong: /ɔɪə/
Note: In connected speech, especially in fluent or rapid speech, triphthongs are more evident. In careful speech, speakers may pronounce them more as diphthongs plus a schwa or even two separate syllables.
Source: Gemini
A triphthong is a single syllable that combines three vowel sounds into a single, continuous glide. Often described as a diphthong followed by a schwa (“uh” sound), triphthongs are a quick, uninterrupted movement from one vowel quality to the next and to a third. Examples include the sound in words like “hour” or “fire”.
Key characteristics
- Three vowel sounds:A triphthong consists of three vowel sounds, unlike a monophthong (one sound) or a diphthong (two sounds).
- Single syllable:All three sounds must be in the same syllable; if the sounds are broken into two syllables, it is not a triphthong.
- Diphthong + schwa:The structure is often a combination of a diphthong and a schwa sound, like “ou” + “uh” in “hour”.
- Rapid and continuous:The sounds are produced quickly and without interruption, forming a single, blended sound.
Examples of triphthongs
- /aʊə/as in “hour”
- /aɪə/as in “fire”
- /eɪə/as in “player”
- /əʊə/as in “mower”
- /ɔɪə/as in “employer”
3. Voiced and Unvoiced sounds
In English, sounds are categorized as voiced or unvoiced (also called voiceless) depending on whether your vocal cords vibrate when you produce the sound. This is a fundamental concept in phonetics and helps with understanding pronunciation.
Here’s how to tell the difference and some examples:
How to identify Voiced vs. Unvoiced Sounds:
The easiest way to check is to place your fingers gently on your throat (on your Adam’s apple if you have one) and make the sound.
- Voiced Sound: If you feel a vibration in your throat, the sound is voiced.
- Unvoiced Sound: If you do not feel a vibration, the sound is unvoiced.
You can also hold your hand in front of your mouth. Unvoiced sounds often release a stronger puff of air (aspiration(ធនិត)) than their voiced counterparts.
Vowels:
- All vowel sounds in English are voiced. When you say “a,” “e,” “i,” “o,” “u,” and their various sounds (like the “ou” in “house” or the “ee” in “feet”), you should always feel a vibration in your vocal cords.
Consonants:
Consonants can be either voiced or unvoiced. Many English consonants come in pairs, where they are produced with the same mouth position, but one is voiced and the other is unvoiced.
Here’s a breakdown of common consonant sounds and their classification:
Unvoiced Consonants (No Vocal Cord Vibration):
- /p/ as in “pat” (paired with /b/)
- /t/ as in “top” (paired with /d/)
- /k/ as in “cat,” “kick” (can be spelled ‘c’, ‘k’, ‘ch’, ‘qu’, paired with /g/)
- /f/ as in “fan” (paired with /v/)
- /θ/ as in “thin,” “bath” (unvoiced ‘th’, paired with /ð/)
- /s/ as in “sit,” “city” (paired with /z/)
- /ʃ/ as in “she,” “dish” (paired with /ʒ/)
- /tʃ/ as in “chair,” “match” (paired with /dʒ/)
- /h/ as in “hat”
Voiced Consonants (Vocal Cords Vibrate):
- /b/ as in “bat” (paired with /p/)
- /d/ as in “dog” (paired with /t/)
- /g/ as in “go” (paired with /k/)
- /v/ as in “van” (paired with /f/)
- /ð/ as in “the,” “that” (voiced ‘th’, paired with /θ/)
- /z/ as in “zoo” (paired with /s/)
- /ʒ/ as in “measure,” “garage” (paired with /ʃ/)
- /dʒ/ as in “juice,” “bridge” (paired with /tʃ/)
- /l/ as in “love”
- /m/ as in “man”
- /n/ as in “no”
- /ŋ/ as in “sing“
- /r/ as in “red”
- /w/ as in “we”
- /j/ as in “yes” (the ‘y’ sound)
Why is this important?
Understanding voiced and unvoiced sounds is crucial for:
- Pronunciation accuracy: It helps you make sounds correctly, especially in consonant pairs that only differ by voicing (e.g., “pat” vs. “bat”).
- Listening comprehension: Recognizing the subtle differences helps distinguish words.
- Grammar rules: It influences how we pronounce “s” for plurals and third-person singular verbs, and “ed” for past tense verbs. For example:
- If a word ends in an unvoiced sound, the final “s” is pronounced /s/ (e.g., “cats” /kæts/).
- If a word ends in a voiced sound or a vowel, the final “s” is pronounced /z/ (e.g., “dogs” /dɔgz/, “trees” /triz/).
- Similar rules apply to the “ed” ending for past tense verbs.
Note: In English, the sounds represented by ‘V’ and ‘W’ are distinct, differing in their manner and place of articulation:
| Feature | V Sound (/v/) | W Sound (/w/) |
|---|---|---|
| Type | Fricative consonant | Approximant (or glide) consonant |
| Articulation | Labiodental (lower lip touches upper teeth) | Bilabial/Labial-velar (lips are rounded/puckered, and the back of the tongue is raised) |
| Air Flow | Air is pushed through a narrow channel, creating friction (a "buzzing" sound). | Air moves freely with no obstruction or friction. |
| Vocal Cords | Voiced (vocal cords vibrate) | Voiced (vocal cords vibrate) |
| Example Words | Van, vote, have | Water, west, away |
How to make the sounds:
- To make the V sound, gently place your top teeth on your bottom lip and push air through, causing a vibration in your throat.
- To make the W sound, round your lips as if you’re going to whistle, but don’t let your teeth touch your lip, and let your voice pass through the rounded opening.
4. Pronunciation of Endings (suffixes)
The two most regular endings in English are the –s ending and the –ed ending. The rules for their pronunciation do not change. They are the same for different types of word.
4.1. The -s ending
The -s ending is used to form: plural nouns, possessive nouns, 3rd person singular verbs (-s form), and contractions of is and has.
The -s ending has four different uses:
| -s is used to form: | pronunciation (IPA) | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| add /-iz/ | add /-z/ voiced | add /-s/ unvoiced | |
| Plural nouns | voice > voices
/vɔɪs/ > /vɔɪsiz/ |
day > days /deɪ/ > /deɪz/ |
act > acts /ækt/ > /ækts/ |
| Possessive nouns | James > James’s* /dʒeɪmz/ > /dʒeɪmziz/ |
Ann > Ann’s /æn/ > /ænz/ |
Mark > Mark’s /mɑːk/ > /mɑːks/ |
| 3rd person singular verbs (-s form) | teach > teaches /tiːtʃ/ > /tiːtʃiz/ |
lead > leads /liːd/ > /liːdz/ |
like > likes /laɪk/ > /laɪks/ |
| Contractions of is and has | (no contraction) | She is > she’s /ʃiː/ > /ʃiːz/ |
It is > it’s /ɪt/ > /ɪts/ |
It means something belongs to James, like:
• James’s book = the book that belongs to James.
| Word | Possessive | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|
| James | James’s | /ˈdʒeɪmzɪz/ ("Jam-ziz") |
| boss | boss’s | /ˈbɒsɪz/ ("boss-iz") |
| class | class’s | /ˈklæsɪz/ ("class-iz") |
Either is acceptable in writing—but in spoken English, we usually pronounce the possessive as "Jam-ziz" whether or not the second "s" is written.
• Pronounced /ˈdʒeɪmzɪz/ = “Jam-ziz”
• We add /ɪz/ to help distinguish the possessive
• This follows a regular rule in English for possessive words ending in -s
(i) Add /-iz/ after consonants which have a ‘hissing’ or ‘buzzing’ sound, that is, after /z/, /s/, /dʒ/, /tʃ/, /ʒ/, /ʃ/.
Example: refuses, passes, judges, watches, garages, wishes.
(ii) Add /-z/ after any other voiced sound, that is, after a vowel, or after the voiced consonants /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /ð/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /l/, /r/.
Example: boys, lies, ways, pubs, words, pigs, loves, bathes, rooms, turns, things, walls, cars.
(iii) Add /-s/ after any other voiceless sound, that is, after the consonants /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /θ/.
Example: cups, cats, walks, laughs, tenths.
• The Sound: It makes a crisp, hissing /s/ sound (like a snake).
• Examples: Kiss, pass, less, boss.
• Exception: In very rare cases, -ss can sound like /z/ (e.g., scissors or possess) or /sh/ (e.g., mission), but the standard ending is unvoiced /s/.
• The Rule: Because it is impossible to say two /s/ sounds back-to-back, English adds an entire extra syllable.
• The Sound: The ending is pronounced as /ɪz/ (or /əz/), which is voiced.
• Examples:
Bosses → /bɔːs-ɪz/
Glasses → /ɡlæs-ɪz/
| Form | Spelling | Final Sound | Voice Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Boss | /s/ | Unvoiced (No vibration) |
| Plural | Bosses | /ɪz/ | Voiced (Vibration on the extra syllable) |
Pro Tip: This rule also applies to words ending in -ce or -se that sound like /s/, such as race (races) or nurse (nurses).
4.2. The -ed ending
The -ed ending is used for the past simple tense and past participle of regular verbs.
| -ed is used to form: | pronunciation (IPA) | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| add /-id/ | add /-d/ voiced | add /-t/ unvoiced | |
| Past forms of the verb | need > needed /niːd/ > /niːdid/ |
fill > filled /fɪl/ > /fɪld/ |
work > worked /wɜːk/ > /wɜːkt/ |
| want > wanted /wɒnt/ > /wɒntid/ |
try > tried /traɪ/ > /traɪd/ |
help > helped /help/ > /helpt/ |
|
(i) Add /-id/ after a /d/ or a /t/.
Example: added, landed, arrested, started.
(ii) Add /-d/ after any other voiced sound, that is, after a vowel, or after the voiced consonants /b/, /g/, /v/, /ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /l/, /r/.
Example: stayed, tied, paid, robbed, bugged, lived, scythed, used, garaged, judged, seemed, turned, longed, failed, cared.
(iii) Add /-t/ after any other voiceless sound, that is, the consonants /p/, /k/, /f/, /θ/, /s/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/.
Example: developed, looked, laughed, berthed, missed, wished, watched.
On how to pronounce the endings -er and -est (comparative and superlative), see -er / -est.
End of Lesson 1